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Abstract
In recent decades, much research has been conducted in the context of domestic violence, especially violence against women and children; But in related to another form of domestic violence, or sibling abuse, not only has little attention been paid by researchers, but most parents also ignore their children's violent behavior toward each other as a common childish behavior. However, most of these cases have profound and destructive effects on children's social development and cognition, and consequently increase the likelihood of committing criminal behaviors. Among these, social and cultural factors are a hidden phenomenon that determines the shape of individual relationships in families. The present study describes the prevalence of sibling abuse with the aim of examining the economic, cultural and social contexts of student families.
     The survey study was conducted among 600 high school students in districts one and six of Mashhad using a researcher-made questionnaire in two sections: self-reported victimization and delinquency with Cronbach's alpha 0.918, and was conducted in the academic year 2020-2021. Data analysis shows that the cultural and social characteristics of families such as inadequate parental education, poverty and unemployment, affect the prevalence of sibling violence, and violence among students with lower levels of family background was more prevalent in compare to others.
    This study shows that social factors and cultural level within families affect the level of violence between children; therefore, if a society can strengthen the normative and cultural components of families through education and the media, it can improve the health of families. The Iranian legislature has taken an important step to combat this type of behavioral violence by passing the Child and Adolescent Protection Act 2020.
 
Keywords: Domestic Violence, Brother-Sister Abuse, Victim Self-Report, Crime Self-Report, Mashhad High School Students

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Security is a one of the most important factors of urban environments. Therefore, the necessity of security in urban spaces has caused the emersion of authentic theories like defensible spaces and crime prevention through environment design (CPTED) . In this paper, various literatures related to defensible space theories have been reviewed and the related keywords have been defined. Then the role of defensible urban spaces as a social capital in reduction of urban crimes is determined. Finally, the condition of defensible spaces in ITC with an emphasis on Isfahan city has been studied. The research methodology is based on the analysis of data and documents collected through field survey. The research results justify the precedence of defensible spaces – in design and planning- at shaping the Iranian historical cities. Secure and defensible spaces, which support social capital concept under public surveillance and collective responsibility, work as an important aspect in reducing crimes and stability of urban security. Ke

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Nariman Tirgar Fagheri Mohammad Hossein Najafi Abarand Abadi The restriction of custodial sentences is the importance subject which suggested in the criminal policy of the most pencl system. In this article we dislussed the global efforts and criminal legislation policy of Iran for restriction of custeidal sentence. The main motives to notice of such policy are tbe unsuccesfully costoidal sentence in socialre reintegration of offenders goals of decreasing prison over crowching and preventional recidivism decreasing of expenditure that resulting enforcement of custoidal sentence. Also the efforts for restrictional custoidal sentence in global level has as effects on national legislation with the guiding rules. At this fundation we discussed regional international activities for restriction of custiodal sentence of finally the changes of Iranian criminal legislation policies in before ofter islamic revolution. Consequencely ofter considering the global efforts to criminal legistation policy of iran we needs to supply certain practical method. It also suggsted that to be supply certain practical method with vespect of accepted principal for sentences and with consideveing the international practical method to guiding rules in ordered to suitable used of adjustment to atieration to suspention policy of cuntiodal sentence.

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Ali Hossein Najafi Abran Abadi Associate Professor, Department of Law, Shahid Beheshti University Mohammad Jafar Habibzadeh Associate Professor, Department of Law, Tarbiat Modares University Mohammad Ebrahim Shams Nateri Ph.D. Student in Criminal Law, Tarbiat Modares University One of the most important threats to the world community in modern age is the "Organized Crime". In criminology this includes the sever eunlawful activities committed by the highly structured groups with special characteristics to obtain power and benitits, although in criminal Law these attributes are not necessary for the groups. This crime however is as old as the nation, but the globalization of the economy and depending, of the countries upon each other on economic matters and the development of the international comunication and transportation have cused it to become transnational and to expand its domain to international level. Organized crime has been studied in criminology at first. Some states have criminilized it, but not widely, in their internal law after appearance of its threats to' the community by the crriminologists. Furthermore, several regional and international treaties have been signed to combat Organized Crime. Because of its threats, the U.N. Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime has been signed in November 2000 in General Assembly session of U.N. to promote international cooperation and harmonize internal laws against transnational organized crime. Because Iran has engaged in combatting organized crime, especially during trafficking, it is necessary for Iranian legislature to legislate proper Acts to prevent, control and supress manifestations of Organizaed Crime.

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Introduction
 Slums as an output of spatial imbalances originating from the injustice of space is one of the most important foundations threatening security and development in individual and collective scales. Ahvaz ranks first in the country in terms of the area of ​​ Slums areas with ten districts, and in terms of the marginal population with 450 thousand people, it is one of the densest marginal areas in the country. The impact of the Slums areas can be investigated and analyzed from various aspects, one of the most important aspects of these studies is the spatial analysis of crimes in the Slums areas of the city and the identification of crime-prone areas for the prevention of crimes in the city. Space of Ahvaz city has two important features. The first is the extent and the second is the presence of marginal areas. The marginal neighborhoods of Ahvaz city include Shalang Abad, Siyahi, Ain Do, Al Safi, Hasir Abad, Zargan, Zargan, Zoway, Cheniba, and Malashieh. In this article, focusing on crimes such as armed robbery, extortion, brawl, shooting, and murder, the marginal neighborhoods have been examined and ranked in terms of the five crimes index.
Methodology
This article will be organized using the descriptive-analytical method and the use of theoretical and field studies of research findings. In order to analyze the theoretical aspects of the research, library data, documents, electronic references, etc. have been used. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been used to determine the weight of crimes and the Vicor technique in Excel in order to rank areas in terms of the occurrence of five types of crimes.
Finding
The findings show that the ranking of the marginal neighborhoods in terms of five types of crimes, from the highest to the lowest amount, respectively, including Al-Safi, Hasir Abad, and the source of water,
Shelang Abad, Siyahi and Ain Do, Malashieh, Cheniba, and Zargan. And it is Zoya.
Insecurity caused by urban marginalization can be categorized into three scales: 1- local scale; which include: the suburbs of the city. In general, insecurity in the city can be seen and investigated in the following two ways: A: Crimes in urban life such as armed robbery, extortion, shooting, etc. B: Violent acts that are usually collective. Such as: conflict and quarrel 2- Regional or metropolitan scale of Ahvaz city: the marginal areas of Ahvaz city provide a suitable platform for the residence of criminals and criminals due to the possibility of reduced police security surveillance. In this scale, insecurity and crime gradually penetrate from the marginal neighborhoods to other neighborhoods in Ahvaz. And the security of Ahvaz metropolis faces a crisis. 3- Regional scale or Khuzestan province: After the spread of insecurity and crime at the local and regional level, there is a possibility of reflecting the absence or reduction of insecurity from Ahvaz metropolis to the scale of Khuzestan province. This level of insecurity goes beyond crime-prone urban areas. Decreasing the security of Ahvaz city as its political centrality for Khuzestan province has economic, political, cultural, social, etc. dimensions on this scale is important for Khuzestan province. Therefore, in the line of research, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been used to determine the weight of crimes and Vicor technique in Excel in order to rank areas in terms of the occurrence of five types of crimes. So that the marginal neighborhoods are ranked in terms of five crimes and the neighborhoods that have more crime potential than other areas are identified.
Conclusion
One of the most important issues arising from the governance of the marginalization conditions in the country's metropolises. At present, Ahvaz, due to the centrality of the province and the presence of higher education centers, specialized medical services, power plants, and industrial and commercial centers, has welcomed immigrants from the cities and settlements of Khuzestan province and other provinces. The situation of the marginal neighborhoods of Ahvaz is in an unfavorable situation in terms of human development and physical space. And it affects the increase of urban crimes. This important point is the need to pay attention to spatial justice at the local and regional levels of Ahvaz city space for the relative equality of human development indicators and physical space. Through the spatial analysis of crimes in the marginal neighborhoods of Ahvaz metropolis, it is possible to identify the neighborhoods that are in an unfavorable situation in terms of related crimes in order to prevent crime.

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The literature of urban sociology and geography emphasises the decline of social and moral solidarities as a major characteristic of contemporary metropolitans. In fact, beside various determinative geographic, economic, adminstrative, technological and networking parameters of these places, the metropolitans are socio-spacial center which are facing different sorts of decrease of solidarity according to population growth, development of technological system of labor, and increasing needs of their citizens. The growth of decrease of urban and citizenship solidarities may extremely cause different forms of anomies and beheavioral diseases. It will even cause the formation of urban crimes and also disorder in the collective relationship system and its functions. Increase in the urban crimes statistic, in the beheavioral and psychological anomies, in sub-cultures of the nonhomogeneous social groups, change in the function of family ralationships and finally decreas in the sense of sharing social responsibility, have changed the danger of social and moral solidarity decline the a treat to the sofly and constant development of metropolitans. If there is a plan to achieve a fundamental social reconstruction with cultural, moral and directional fundations is the objective of constant development of our metropolitans, it is necessary to clarify why, how and under the influence of which factors social solidarities are declining. The Following paper concerns to study the context of mentioned subject by utalizing sociological and geographicel explanations. However, the study of social solidarity in big cities shows that in recent years the nature of urban development is experiencing some forms of urban disconnections. It is supposed that many reasons cause such a situation. In last periods, the weak spacial strategy was caused metroplitans not be able to expand the sphere of their social solidarities. Researchs show that the cultural lag in terms of social relationships from different point of views had negative and deconstractive outcomes for the human groups. It is supposed that the pose change of this structure should happen when attention is concentrated on the dimention of population, the cultural investment and finaly the change of planning direction toward solving the problem of socio-spacial dimentions of these areas. By using some of the scientific approaches, this writing is produced in order to explain the complexity of human relationships in metropolitans and to provide some ways for more researches in future related to negative outcomes of social solidarities decline in these places.

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Mohammad Hadi Sadeghi Associate Professor department of Law, Shiraz University  Although the victim consent of a crime has no legal effect on the criminal prohibitory character of the wrong committed by the offender, it can prevent the establishment of the right to retaliate or can cause the waiver of the right. This is due to the fact that the right to request retaliation originally belongs to the victim and it then passes to his family. Hence, the victim has a priority to waive the right. In addition, due to the voluntary character of the committed offence, based on the consent of the victim, no mulct (blood-money) is proven. The offender, therefore, can be sentenced to other forms of punishment merely on the basis of the committed act and not the resulted consequence.

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Sadegh Salimi Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Azad University  Transnational organized crime is one of the most problematic matters for international community in 21 st century. These crimes are committed by organized criminal groups consisting of three or more persons, a unique leadership and strict discipline with cruel sanctions in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit. Illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms is one of the most dangerous activities of these groups. The United Nations, acting on behalf of international community, elaborated an international document named "United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime" with two protocols. These documents were opened for signature of states in 2000. The third protocol named "Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime" was approved by the General Assembly in 2001. The protocol is analyzed as the most comprehensive international document in the matter. Under the protocol, states parties are obliged to consider trafficking in firearms as a crime, to assist technically and educationally, to exchange information, to keep records of and mark firearms, to supervise on brokering of firearms and confiscation of unlawful firearms. The purpose of this protocol is coordination of states national laws and encouragement of states to cooperation. It is based on preventive measures. Since its ratification would create good opportunities to Iran in combating this organized crime, it is recommendable to Iran.

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Seyed Doraid Mousavi Mojab Ph.D. Student of Criminal Law and Criminology, Tarbiat Modarres University  More than six decades past since the important and everlasting work of Edwin H. Sutherland, The famous professor of penal sociology in the U.S.A, entitled “white-collar crime”, has been published. Sutherland explained this topic in terms of its importance for the civil society of the U.S.A, and opened a new way which was later pursued by the celebrated criminologists. From the criminologists point of view, white- collar criminals who have no ethical conscience, enjoy high ability to commit a crime on one hand, and their conformitibility is in a high level on the other hand. This point expresses the probable harms of these good- looking criminals and their dangerous state. White- collar criminals belong to high social classes, they enjoy power and effectual influence. They commit crimes such as fraud, embezzlement, bribery, forgery, abuse of credit cards, efc. In Sutherland’s definition, “white-collar crime” is a crime committed by a person of high status in the course of occupation. They are called white - collar criminals, because of their plausible face, public reputation, intelligence and being under social acceptability. The effects of their criminal acts are in a manner, which their results predominantly remain for a long time. However , it’s necessary to study the white- collar crimes whit respect to their destructive effects on communities through a comprehensive approach, especially from criminologicaly aspects.

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Forensic Linguistics is a new and interdisciplinary branch of applied linguistics and law that analyzes oral and written legal texts by using language tools and linguistic evidences and helps in detecting crime. The goal of present research is to obtain spoken features of robbery defendants in order to provide a unique conversation of thieves in detection of crimes. The authors are trying to describe and explain speech of robbery defendants in Semnan province judicial system from the perspective of Forensic Linguistics.The results show that the robbery defendants by using many linguistic principles such as high modality, activism deletion, infelicitous utterance, illocutionary act try to gain interrogators confidence. Investigation of lawsuits details show that robbery defendants in their defenses use linguistic principles differently. In particular, they use in their speech modality for 29%, contradictions for 16%, activism deletion for 14%, presupposition for 10%, speech acts for 3%, implicature for 1% and middle voice construction for 0/5%. The methodology of the research is descriptive-analytic and its purpose is to describe and explain the spoken features of the robbery defendants according to linguistic principles from the perspective of forensic linguistics. According to the research topic that it describes and analyzes the spoken features of the robbery defendants, we have selected four robbery cases from Semnan prosecutors. The four cases have been read in full and in rows from the initial stages of investigation to interrogations and trials and the linguistics tools examined, have been identified, extracted and analyzed.
 Also results suggest that attention to features and elegances of language like low modality, contradiction in speech, activism deletion, presupposition, implicature; middle voice construction and Gricean Cooperative Principles can help investigators and judges at crime detection.

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The issue of "victimless crimes" or "consensual crimes" is a new issue, and at the same time a very important one in the realm of the studies regarding "victimology", as a now branch of criminal sciences. The novelty of the issue, specifically in the Iranian criminal law, its vagueness, and the relationship of victimless crimes with some criminal policy issues like criminal proceeding, criminal statistics, fear of crime, crime prevention and restorative justice reveal the significance of the point. This article deals with the most important issues in this regard, namely defining and realizing samples of this kind of crimes, in order to get a better understanding and recognition of the concept of "victimless crimes" or in other words "crimes without direct victim", and also to determine the samples of this kind of crimes. The article deals also with the basic elements mentioned in the definition particularly the triple elements, that is victim, damage and consensus Finally, the article examines the relation between morality and victimless crimes and compares them.

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Criminalization of certain deviances was brought forth in the light of the punishment concepts of Jeremy Bantam, but further developed under the influence of the positivism school teaching, especially the Dangerous mood theory, and for the time being, is recognized as the "preventive crimes". Nowadays, the criminalization of such a behavior does not conform to the standards offered by the criminal law philosophers about criminalization. Considering the standards for reasons balancing, social compliance, prohibition of imposing damages on others and filtering what concerns the criminalization, in other to recognized a behavior as a crime (crimnal act) it is essential that First,the concerned behavior be inconsistent with the ethical principles and values of the society. Second, the application of non-penal actions would not be effective in counteracting that behavior. Third, there should be executive and practical grounds for fierce encounter with that behavior. As the aforesaid indications have not been observed in the criminalize tion of the preventive crimes, considering them as a crime can not be rationally justified. On the other hand, the nature of such deviant behaviors is so that through application of non-penal actions and preventive means, their extent can be limited. Therefore, as the first step, we should overlook the suppressive penal actions when confronting such behaviors and recommend the exercise of means law as the last penal of the Social Defense System. Iran criminal legislation does not follow a particular logic concerning such behaviors. Some of these behaviors in the Iranian Penal Code have been referred to as criminal acts, despite the fact that they are far beyond any criminalization logics.

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The question of plurality and repetition of crime in the Iranian criminal law may be approached from three different angles: first is the definition which has been given to the said terms. Despite some doubts, there has been no change regarding the definition of the plurality of crime after the 1979 Revolution. However, as to the repetition of crime, the Iranian legislator while considering the issue of Hodud (God made punishment), has made an incomplete definition open to criticism. Second is the distinction which has been made between two kinds of material plurality of crimes. The legislat or has divided it to two category of material plurality of similar and different crimes. As to the later, the rule of collective punishment has been applied, whereas regarding the former, the rule of unity of punishment or the court's discretionary power to aggravate the penalty has been accepted. This initiation has also taken root from the hodud issue but considering the fundamental and substantive differences which exist between the rules governing Hodud and Tazirat (Judg made punishment), this measure of the legislator is untenable. Third issue concerns the criterion of aggrevating punishment in plurality of similar crimes and repetition of crime. The legislator, in spite of granting the judge the discretion to aggravate punishment, has indicated no criterion for it. This has led the Iran's supreme court to take a decision on the basis of the principle of nulla poena sine lege when it approached the issue of plurality of similar crimes. It did not approved the power of the courts to determine a punishment more than the maximum legal penalty.

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The Iraqi Special Tribunal is a body established under the Iraqi national law to try Iraqi nationals or residents accused of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes or other serious crimes committed between 1968 and 2003. The statute of Iraqi Special Tribunal was enacted on 10. 12. 2003 by the Iraqi Governing Counsel. The tribunal recognizes the wishes of the Iraqi people to establish a legal instrument suitable for proving their rights and uncovering the truth about what happened during the past years. The intention of the drafters of the statute was to attempt insofar as possible to comply with the international standards of due process of law and to focus on the crimes committed under the international law such as genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. But do they success in doing so or not will be discussed in this paper.

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Genocide means any acts committed intentionally to destroy in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group. Various international instruments, from the international convention of prevention and punishment of genocide (1948) to the Rome statute for the establishment of international criminal court (1998), in protecting the existence and identification of these proposes require all the states to adopt necessary legislative and judicial measures to prevent genocide and to prosecute and punish the criminals. Criminalization and condemnation of genocide, as a serious international crime, is considered as Jus Cogens and Erga Omnes. Consequently, genocide has been criminalized in the internal law of more than 85 countries and they have ratified the necessary regulations to prevent the crime and punish the offenders. The treaty was ratified without reservation in Iran in 1953; however, no particular legislative and judicial measures to enforce the treaty have been made. It seems that criminalization of genocide in the Iranian legal system and confering jurisdiction to the Iranian courts to deal with this crime may be a great step in reinforcing the universal will in order to prevent the worst international crimes and it is essential to ratify the international criminal court statute.

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Abstract In the Iranian criminal law, order to murder is considered on the based of article 211 of Islamic penal code, an offence for which life imprisonment has been predicted. In spite of this stipulation, inference of different branches of the supreme court from this article is in a way that has practically led to omission of this criminalization. These branches deem merely duressor worth life imprisonment. While in article 211 of the Islamic penal code both commander and duressor are deemed life imprisonment. In this article we will analyse the opinions of this court which is considered as the governing judicial precedent (Jurisprudence).

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This paper, using an economic analysis of crime, focuses on the relationship between crime and income inequality in Iran. The results indicate that there is a significant relationship between crime and income inequality in Iran. This means that by increasing income inequality in Iran the robbery as a crime will increase as well. In addition the findings reveal that there is a direct relationship between robbery and the proportion of people in urban areas, divorce and unemployment rate, but there is a negative relationship for households’ monthly income in Iran.

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Today, fighting human trafficking has become the first priority in many countries. The breach of human dignity by traffickers and its relation with other organized crimes such as money laundering are among the main factors in fighting this crime world wide. Iran, like many other countries, suffers from this crime. In 2005, Iran’s Parliament passed the Human Trafficking Fighting Act based on the reports of trafficking Iranian women and children to the neighboring countries and as result of international developments, which included the Protocol to Prevention, Suppression and Punishment of Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations’ convention against Transitional Organized Crimes. This Act solved the related problems to some extent, but due to haste in passing it, many topics on the crime remained missed out. This article attempts to assess and analyze the mentioned Act and point out its defects.

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Penal populism has affected criminal policy of many countries in recent years. Under the impact of this approach, policymakers try to pass and enforce publicly admitted crime control policies, regardless of their scientific and theoretical basis. Penal populism has rooted in many factors such as media representation of crime, rising of public fear of crimes, nothing works idea, and election competitions. Its manifestations can clearly be seen on media representation of sex criminals, tendency to punitiveness, criminal policy making based on unpopular criminal events, and infringing of basic principles of criminal law. This article tries to in addition to describing and analyzing the conceptualization of penal populism, the contexts of arising and its manifestations in the penal policy of Iran, do a comparative study of penal systems in this regard.

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Human trafficking is a process involving different criminal behaviors based on human trade to exploit them. Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children (Palermo Protocol) defines the crime of human trafficking, which is committed by criminal groups to obtain financial or material benefits usually through crossing the borders of countries as organized and transnational. Nevertheless, this crime is not identified essentially organized in German law and convention on action against trafficking in human beings (Warsaw Convention). Warsaw Convention has explicitly identified the crime of human trafficking as violation of human rights since it ignores basic rights of human beings such as the right to select. It has also settled some tasks for governments to support victims. Human trafficking in Germany includes all forms of sexual and labour exploitations, and national/transnational trafficking. German legislation has devised some supportive strategies following the thoughts of human rights. In Iran, the so-called law of “combat against human trafficking” has not defined this crime as organized, and identifies it relevant just when accompanied by crossing the borders. Therefore, it is adequate to revise the law in addition to generalize it to all forms of national/transnational trafficking whereas being organized can intensify punishments of offenders. Islamic thoughts and human rights can further insist on supporting victims while joining the convention against transnational organized crime, and Palermo Protocol will contribute to cooperate with other countries in order to combat against human traffickers.