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Today, financial development is one of the main drivers of economic growth and development. Since developing countries are focused on the rapid expansion of economic growth, they have taken steps toward the development of financial markets. However, the consequences of financial development on environmental quality are not clear. In addition, since the emission of carbon dioxide caused by production is significantly different from the emission of carbon dioxide caused by consumption in some countries (such as China). Therefore, this article examines the impact of financial development on the consumption-based CO₂ emissions for a panel of 17 developing countries during the period of 1990-2019 with a Panel- Quantile approach. Empirical findings show that the effect of financial development on consumption-based CO₂ emissions is positive and significant in all quantiles. In addition, this study considers gross domestic product, rental rates of natural resources, trade openness, and globalization as control variables. The results of this study provide new evidence for policymakers to maintain environmental quality by focusing on the link between financial development and consumption-based CO₂ emissions.
 

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The aim of this paper is twofold. It first investigates the demand for international reserves using panel data for 32 developing countries during the period 1975 – 2004. To this end, an Error Correction Model (ECM) approach is employed to estimate the empirical model and then a capital asset pricing model (CAMP) is used to determine the composition of the foreign exchange reserves. A dummy variable is included in the model to consider the effect of changing exchange rate system on the demand and the composition of international reserves. The results show that there is a negative relationship between exchange rate flexibility and the demand for international reserves.

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This paper examines the impact of official development assistance on government fiscal behavior in the Selected Asian developing countries by using Panel Data over the period 1990-2009. The aim of official development assistance is to help developing countries to speed up economic growth and development, income distribution and poverty reduction. But official development assistance is mainly channeled to the domestic economy through the public sector. However, the economic effectiveness of official development assistance has always been a controversial issue. While some researchers argue that such aid results into the growth of bureaucracies, others argue that it can lead to economic growth. The final effects of official development assistance depend on how it influences fiscal policy. Empirical results indicate that official development assistance has a positive and significant effect on capital expenditures and does not have a significant effect on government consumption expenditures and government revenues. Also, official development assistance is a substitute for government borrowing.  

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This research investigates the bank ownership structure in Iran’s stock exchange market using comparative study in the developed countries such as USA and Australia in the one hand, and South American countries such as Chili on the other. It has been proven that while the form of corporate structure, whether in form of a joint-stock company or other forms, hardly affects the corporate efficiency, concentration has strong correlation with efficiency. It has been also found that, while in the developed countries the foreign banks efficiency is much less than that in the domestic ones, foreign banks play an important role in the efficiency of domestic banks in the developing countries, because their entrance in the latter carries expertise as well as technology. Since Iran is considered as a developing country, it is expected that the banks function in Iran is the same as in other developing countries. Consequently the experiences of such countries should be taken into consideration.

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This paper provides an empirically based insight into IT diffusion drivers in developed and developing countries. For this purpose, a new conceptual model with five main factors has been provided and tested using data from 34 developed and 209 developing countries in 2008. The results explore major role of factor "Trade Related Knowledge Spillovers: TRKS) in promoting IT diffusion in both developed and developing countries, and the importance of factor "Financial Resources" in accelerating IT diffusion in developing countries. The results can help IT policy-makers improve greater IT diffusion in a way that developing countries can take advantage of what already being enjoyed by the developed world

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Income inequality and efforts to its reduction it is one of the most important concerns of societies in today's world.  On the one hand, countries are looking for revenue sources and, on the other hand, are trying to reduce income inequalities. In addition, due to the unequal distribution of income and the impact of migration contrary to the policies of societies, migration makes it difficult to achieve the desired economic growth. Therefore, considering the importance of the consequences of migration, the main purpose of this paper is to investigate the nonlinear effects of income inequality on brain drain in developing countries. Based on the findings of the study, the inequality in income distribution has a threshold effect on brain drain in developing countries. As long as inequality is at levels below 0.46, this variable has a negative and significant effect on brain drain, but after exceeding the threshold of 0.46 and being in a high inequality regime, the intensification of inequality increases the brain drain sharply. In other words, society tolerates a degree of inequality, but the intensification of inequality beyond the tolerable level of society causes the elites to migrate to developed countries, which are more equal, in search of a better life and proportionate to their capabilities.

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Aim and Introduction
In recent decades, governments have taken an important step towards an information society, better service delivery, and improving the welfare of their society by developing e-government. The development of communication technology and e-government is considered an effective factor in economic growth and development and high labor productivity. The aim of this research is to investigate the role of e-government development on labor productivity in developing countries including Iran using the vector autoregression approach with panel data (P-VAR) over the period 2003-2020.
Methodology
Sims(1986) first used a vector autoregressive (VAR) model to analyze the dynamic relationships among multiple variables The model assumes that all variables are endogenous. This model uses the lags of all endogenous variables to test the dynamic relationships among all variables. Holtz-Eakin et al.(1998) extended the vector autoregressive model to make a perfect combination of panel data and time series models, making it a powerful analytical tool for macro-dynamics research. To examine renewable energy consumption, population aging, and agricultural green total factor productivity in the same framework, this paper constructs a PVAR model based on the traditional vector autoregressive model. A Panel vector autoregressive model(PVAR) includes the analysis of the Forecast Error Variance Decomposition– FEVD and the analysis of the Orthogonal Impulse Response Function – OIRF. Parameter estimation in the PVAR model is performed using the Generalized Method of Moments. For the stability of the regression equations, a polynomial matrix is used and a partial unit root test is performed for all variables based on the augmented Dickey-Fuller test.
Findings
The results of the study show that due to a positive shock in the development of e-government, labor productivity reacts strongly and positively, which indicates that the development of e-government, in the long run, can lead to increased labor productivity in developing countries. The results also show that in developing countries, the impact of health shock is greater than the impact of other variables such as physical capital formation shock and education variables.
Discussion and Conclusion
Today, the importance and impact of the development of new technologies such as artificial intelligence, the internet of things, and big data in different sectors are so great that this period is referred to as the age of communication. Entering this era and the development of electronic tools has changed the needs of people and societies. The aim of this research was to investigate the role of e-government development on labor productivity in developing countries. The results of the modeling show that the variables of health, physical capital, education, and e-government development are the main factors affecting labor productivity, respectively.
Also, the results of the research show that the response of labor productivity to the shocks of labor productivity itself was positive in the long term. This effect gradually decreases. Specifically, when a positive shock occurs in labor productivity, this situation is considered a signal for the labor force to continuously seek to improve its productivity. According to findings, the reaction of labor productivity to the positive shocks caused by the development of e-government has also been positive, which indicates that the development of e-government has a long-term effect on labor productivity and can lead to an increase in labor productivity in the long run.
According to findings,  in developing countries at the end of the 10th period, about ten percent of labor productivity changes are explained by e-government development shocksLabor productivity. As expected, the impact of the health shock on labor productivity is positive. Quantitatively, the effect of this shock is greater than the shock caused by education and physical capital, which shows the significant impact of health on labor productivity in developing countries. The reaction of labor productivity to the shocks of education is consistent with theoretical expectations. Also, according to expectations, physical capital has a significant effect on labor productivity in developing countries.
In general, it can be seen that in developing countries, any positive change in the development of e-government has an impact on labor productivity (based on the decomposition of impulse-response functions and the analysis of the variance of the forecast error). Also, the response of labor productivity to the changes in the field of health has been greater. Therefore, the authorities of developing countries should improve the productivity of the workforce, pay attention to the development of human capital and physical capital indicators, and implement and develop the e-government as best as possible.

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Abstract:                                                                                       
Introduction: "Understanding and evaluating of spatial planning system" without recognizing of "planning and development system" of countries and without the Understanding of similar situations and lessons learned from others' experiences are not achieved to goals. In This paper isn’t "deliberately" used the experiences of advanced and developed industrial countries, and focus on "developing countries. " Because based on realistic approaches to development, the experiences of similar countries provide more appropriate territorial development strategies to the decision takers. Therefore, four countries (Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Turkey and Malaysia) have been selected for this assessment and analogy because based on social, economic, political and . . . characteristics, there is a greater relative and homogeneous relationship between the Islamic Republic of Iran and these countries, which is the main reason for this choice and comparison
Methodology: . In this analogy, two types of cognition include: basic knowledge (general and geographical status, economic and internal divisions), and special recognition (macro planning system and spatial planning system) were obtained from four countries and analogy with Iran. The method of research was descriptive-analytic and based on documentary and library studies that was completed by comparative analogy. First, the experienced international components were identified in the comparative evaluation knowledge and then based on the conditions of Iran and four Muslim countries The other seven and four components in the "content" and "procedural" dimensions for the concepts of "planning" and "spatial planning" were formulated and a comparative analogy was made for the situation in the five countries.
Results and discussion: according to the findings in the theoretical field (documentary-content), the macro-planning system of most of the studied countries is similar and in line with the more advanced industrial countries with some weaknesses, but in the field of action (process-outcome) the existing differences are very tangible. The situation in the urban planning of these countries has been weaker than their large-scale planning. In spatial planning at urban and metropolitan levels for planning and optimized spatial management, most often pursue the goal of sustainable development in varying degrees, and it is a way of responding to their challenges, but because of government features, lack of practical motivation and the lack of evaluation, monitoring and lack of cultural contexts in achieving the goals, they have a lot of obvious weaknesses.
Conclusion: The final findings showed that in the "macro planning system", all countries have a continuous planning horizon with distinct periods, a dominant economic approach, low participation, and a strong, but not executive, discursive chastiality. Iran, in terms of a theoretical approach similar to Saudi Arabia, Similar participation of Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the actors of development similar to Egypt and almost Turkey, and in other components, is the same as that of any other country. In the "Spatial Planning System", Iran has been involved in the components of the hierarchical levels of planning

 

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رIntroduction
The tourism sector plays a pivotal role in national economic development because it promotes the development of related industries such as transportation. The boosting effect of tourism on economic growth is more obvious in developing countries with abundant tourism resources (Dieke, 2003). However, tourism development undergoes great dynamic changes due to complex and volatile external environments, such as global climate change and social disturbances with a high degree of uncertainty (Nguyen et al., 2020; Scott et al., 2019). thus, the tourism economy has become very fragile and has a weak ability to withstand risks from various sources (Wang et al., 2022). Therefore, this study attempts to examine the Indirect impact of tourism on economic vulnerability and other factors affecting economic vulnerability in selected developing countries over the period 1995-2021 by using a panel smooth transition regression model.
Methodology
In this study, the nonlinear threshold effect of tourism on economic vulnerability in selected developing countries is examined using a PSTR model. For this purpose, following Gonzalez et al. (2005) and Colletaz & Hurlin (2006), a PSTR model with two regimes and a transition function is defined. according to the study of Colletaz & Hurlin (2006), can be chosen among the explanatory variables, the lag of the dependent variable, or any other variable outside the model that is theoretically related to the model under study and causes a nonlinear relationship.
qit  represents the transition variable and, according Gonzalez et al. (2005) suggest that, in practice, considering one or two thresholds, m = 1  or m = 2 , is sufficient to account for parameter variability. For m =1 , the model implies that the two extreme regimes are associated with low and high values of transition variable with a single monotonic transition of the coefficients from β0  to β0+β1 as transition variable increases, with the change centered around location parameters. When →∞  , transition function the model becomes an indicator function Iqit>c1 , defined as IA=1  when event A occurs and 0 otherwise. In this case, the PSTR model in (1) reduces to the two-regime panel threshold model of Hansen (1999). For m = 2, the transition function has its minimum at c1+c22  and reaches 1 at both low and high values of qit . In this case, the transition function (2) becomes constant for any value of m when γ → 0 . In this case, the model collapses into a fixed effects homogeneous or linear panel regression model. Accordingly, in the PSTR model, based on the observations of the transition variable and the slope parameter, the estimated coefficients are continuous and bounded between F = 1 and F = 0.
As mentioned earlier, another salient feature of the PSTR model is that it provides a parametric approach to cross-country heterogeneity and time instability of the slope coefficients, allowing the parameters to change smoothly as a function of the threshold variable yit . More precisely, the income elasticity for the i ^th country at time t is defined by the weighted average of the parameters β0  and β1 .
 It is worth noting that the estimation of the parameters of the PSTR model consists in eliminating the individual effects by removing the individual means and then applying nonlinear least squares (NLS) to the transformed model (see for details, Gonzalez et al., 2005). This method is equivalent to maximum likelihood (ML) estimation in the case of normal errors.
Following Gonzalez et al. (2005), Colletaz & Hurlin (2006), and Jude (2010), the estimation steps of a PSTR model are as follows: First, the linearity test against PSTR is performed using Wald Tests (LMw ) coefficients, Fisher Tests (LMF ) coefficients and LRT Tests (LR ) coefficient statistics according to Colletaz & Hurlin (2006). Once we have rejected the linearity hypothesis, we can verify that nonlinearity no longer exists. Then it is a matter of testing whether there is a transition function or whether there are at least two transition functions.
Results and Discussion:
The results show that in the first regime, trade openness has a negative effect on economic vulnerability, which has decreased and turned positive after crossing the threshold location in the second regime. Government expenditure has a positive effect on economic vulnerability, and after crossing the threshold location and entering the second regime, its effect gradually decreased and became positive. Inflation coefficients in the regime had a negative and insignificant effect on economic vulnerability, which after crossing the threshold location and entering the second regime, its effect gradually decreased and became positive, but it was significant at the 10 percent level.
Also, the results show that before the threshold location and at low levels of tourism income, the logarithm of financial development has a negative and significant effect on economic vulnerability, and after the threshold location and entering the second regime, this effect is still negative and increases. The coefficients of the logarithm of total unemployment have a negative effect on economic vulnerability in the first regime and before the threshold location. By crossing the threshold location and entering the second regime, this effect decreases and becomes positive.
Conclusion
In this study, the threshold and Indirect effect of tourism on economic vulnerability in selected developing countries during 1995-2021 was investigated. For this purpose, the PSTR model provided and developed by Gonzalez et al. (2005) and Colletaz & Hurlin (2006) was used. The estimation results suggested a nonlinear relationship between trade openness, financial development, government spending, total unemployment, inflation and economic vulnerability. Moreover, considering a threshold with two regimes or a transition function is sufficient to investigate nonlinear behaviors. The results show that the threshold of the transition variable is equal to 3.1378 and the slope parameter is equal to 33.8978, which include only one transition function and only one threshold.
Considering the positive impact of tourism on financial development and government spending, it can be said that the development of tourism income can indirectly reduce the economic vulnerability of developing countries by increasing financial development and national income and adjusting industrial structures, while this mediating effect at the level Social does not appear. Therefore, it is suggested that considering that in developing countries where the overall economic strength of a country is weak, with low economic development, the development of international tourism should be cautious. The main task should be to create infrastructure and stimulate domestic consumption. Investment should be focused on industries such as manufacturing and financial development to increase the growth of GDP and improve people's quality of life. Physical needs are the most important factor to maintain economic stability and prevent economic vulnerability. For these countries, attention should be paid to domestic tourism by strengthening the construction of tourism service facilities, adjusting the structure of the tourism industry and ensuring the sustainable development of international tourism, while accelerating the development of domestic tourism.
From an institutional perspective, creating active employment policies to create preferential employment conditions for low-income people can further ensure the positive impact of low-level international tourism on economic vulnerability. Finally, regardless of the level of economic development, one should have a clear understanding of the performance of the tourism industry based on the state of the country. This is possible by correctly positioning the tourism industry and not exaggerating the role of tourism and not giving up on its development due to some negative factors. Economic vulnerability can be effectively reduced only by combining tourism with other industries and focusing on overall economic development.

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